Religion In North American Towns Essays - Mormon Studies, Mormon War

Religion In North American Towns Religion has played a vital role in the settling of many pre-industrial North American towns and cities. In fact, religion proved to be one of the main reasons Europeans broke their affiliation with the dictatorial and the monarchial rule in Europe and came to settle the Americas. Generally, these particular religious settlers incorporated town-planning ideas developed in Europe and translated them into their particular beliefs. However, some specific and influential settlers broke away from the norm in a progressive attempt to invent new societies in a new land based on accumulated knowledge. John Reps, the pre-eminent American historian on town planning has this to say about those who strayed from the common ideals. "Almost from the beginning of settlement, America attracted a variety of reformers, utopians, and pariah religious sects. These dedicated... groups shunned existing cities with their temptations and distractions, preferring to create settlements in harmony with their religious, economic, or social convictions." In this paper, I will analyze and compare the influence of two different religions in the settling of their respective towns. The first will be The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, also known as the Mormons, and the second is the Church of the United Brethren, also known as the Moravians. THE MORMON MISSION The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is a Christian religion that came into existence during the early 19th-century American movement of religious revivalism called the Second Great Awakening. Officially, Joseph Smith, who is recognized as a prophet in modern Mormon teachings, founded the church in 1830 after he said that God had spoken to him. In that same year, he organized his first followers in New York. From that point on, as they marched westward, he experimented in building towns that revolved around "...order, unity, and community." These values were viewed as supreme in the prophet's ideal society, and these same values were at odds with values that were characteristic of many cities and towns already existing in America at that time. It is said that his aim was to realize the Christian commonwealth that had been the ideal of John Winthrop in Puritan New England. According to one account, Winthrop at one time had said to the colonists, "Wee must be knit together in this work as one man." This one statement seems to provide the basis of Smith's convictions when he set out to form new towns in hopes of turning people on to his religion. The Law of Consecration and Stewardship was outlined by Joseph Smith in 1831, and marked the beginning of Mormon ?communitarianism.' This law "...was a prescription for transforming the highly individualistic economic order of Jacksonian America into a system characterized by economic equality, socialization of surplus incomes, freedom of enterprise, and group economic self-sufficiency." Basically, what this meant was that all members of the church and hereafter, the community, would deed all of his/her property to the bishop of the church. On top of this, the community was to farm and cultivate the land together and share equally the crops. In turn, the bishop would appropriate these assets out based on the need of an individual or family residing within the community. Doctrines of the church such as these held a paralleled relationship to the planning of the towns. By early 1831, Joseph Smith and his following had moved west to Kirtland, Ohio. Kirtland was an ideal spot for Americans seeking prosperity given its ripe location for trade as well as agriculture. The land in Ohio had richer soil than that found along the Atlantic coast, and the climate was much milder. A good reason for this can be attributed to Ohio's gentle topography. This was beneficial to the Mormon people who relied on farming and trade. The location was in close proximity to both Lake Erie, which provided the transportation to the East, and the Ohio Canal, which connected to the Ohio River and hence the entire Mississippi River system. The Mormons however did not take full advantage of this beneficial location for settlement, as they left after only a short period of time. Kirtland was a settlement where many firsts occurred in the Mormon religion, and it was a settlement that would aid Mormons in molding future settlements. The House of the Lord, also referred to as the Kirtland Temple, was the first major permanent structure for worship built by the Mormons, and it served as a pattern that was to be followed by future designs of churches in Mormon settlements. The temple served dual

Racial diversity in The United States

Racial diversity in The United States Introduction The United States have witnessed tremendous changes and developments in its racial and ethnic composition in the last three centuries owing to factors such as colonization, immigration and more recently the economic globalization.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Racial diversity in The United States specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Although the world has experienced massive integration over the years, the United States remains the only country where the bulk of the integration has occurred. More importantly, the racial diversity has become a common determinant in the business environment with major implications on economic fortunes of locally and foreign based companies. The success of integration of immigrants is believed to influence the market dynamic and consumer expectations. In addition, integration of races has elicited much debate among racial sociologists with some supporting heterogene ity while others are keen on the homogenization of all races to form an American culture. This research paper will offer the differing perspectives of the melting pot and the salad bowl images in interracial relations. The paper will provide a brief description of the two metaphors and relate them to appropriate theories of relations before discussing their strengths and limitations. To start with, it is imperative to define the two metaphors in order to have a clear picture of what they represent in the American society. The salad bowl is a concept widely used to denote the successful incorporation of divergent and differing cultural values and norms in a different setting such as the United States. Although some form of integration occurs in the society, the specific cultures do not overly merge to form a homogenous culture, but retain their distinct values. On the other hand, the melting point has been regularly been used to bring out the tendency of a society losing its heteroge neity of cultures thereby embracing a common and homogenous cultural concept. The assimilation of the cultural diversity occasioned by massive influx of immigrants to the United States in the later stages of 18th century is a good example of the melting pot concept (Yitzhaki Schechtman, 2009, p. 140).Advertising Looking for research paper on ethnicity studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More American culture from 18th to early 20th century can be explained through the melting pot concept owing to the fact that major developments and realignments on socio-economic and political dynamic occurred during this period. The concept has been widely been regarded as among the pillars that helps the American people enjoy much success in social and economic circles. Taking into consideration that America has its origin in immigration, the massive influx of foreigners from Europe pitched camp in the United States thereby settin g a foundation of the American culture. The arrival of the Africans and Latinos as slaves followed by the Hispanics brought a rich cultural mix (Henderson, 2009, p. 11). Although interracial relations were limited owing to stereotyping and legal challenges, considerable merger of the culture occurred in the early years of immigration buoyed by the close relationships that formed between the employers, farmers, slaves and the tradesmen. Although segregation based on ethnicity and economic might was prevalent, integration gained momentum in the years after American independence especially in major cities such as New York (White, 1989, p. 28). The interaction of the different ethnic groups within the various neighborhoods and in the workplaces increased the speed of assimilation of cultural diversity to form a distinct and dynamic American culture. Rosaldo (1994, p. 405) asserted that assimilation started at the lowest level where a lot of social mobility is observed and improved as th e immigrants improved their social status. Increasing discontent by the opponents in the first half of 20th century fuelled by inequalities in the social environment resulted in the embracement of the salad bowl. The legalization of interracial marriages took effect in 1967 and the enactment of the immigration Act of 1q965 meant that an increasingly number of immigrants entered the country thereby imparting negatively on their integration in the American culture. The desire of the minority groups from Asia and Latin America to retain their identity and heritage meant an end to the homogeneity of the American society thereby resulting in the wide application of the salad bowl concept (Henderson, 2009, p. 23).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Racial diversity in The United States specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Currently, America enjoys the most dynamic culture with almost all aspects of its socio-economic st ructures having a well balanced representation brought about by political and social changes of the preceding decades. A walk through the streets of major cities reveals a huge presence of Hispanics and African Americans in addition to the Asians and blacks which has made America to be regarded as a land where plurality of races. In view of the above, the melting pot has been widely used to refer to the act where all immigrants are introduced into the large pot, which is America, and are assimilated gradually just like the components of the pot melt away to form a common item. The act of melting down of cultural beliefs to embrace the American model is widely observed in language, dressing and lifestyle. In contrast, the salad bowl offers a current representation of the American society (Banton, 1998, p. 54). The salad bowl consists of several ingredients that bring their unique tastes and flavors. It is worth noting that an increase in the ingredients commensurate to a rich and oft en tasty salad. The presence of the ingredients as entities is imperative to achieve the delicacy of the salad. Likewise, America is allowing large numbers of immigrants into its territory each year thereby resulting in influx of a variety of cultures. The upsurge of immigrants in the last few decades meant the segregation of the newcomers, who in turn delved to retain their identities, hence forming a mosaic type of scenario. This has led to the emergence of distinctive ethnic enclaves that are bound by the American vision thus forming a whole entity, just like in the salad (LeMay, 2008). Proponents of multiculturalism have been in the forefront in championing the salad bowl due to their desire for the society to retain the diversity offered b y this concept. On the other hand, the melting pot has played a major role in uniting people of different ethnic and cultural backgrounds thereby making it popular in places experiencing conflict. The melting pot is therefore associated with assimilation whereby the larger society is protected from receiving undue influence from the some cultures. Therefore, melting pot is associated with assimilation while the salad bowl is close to the theories of multiculturalism (Aguirre Jr. Turner, 2008, p. 65). In addition, melting pot has lost relevance in America owing to changes in social dynamic s and technological advancements although it still holds clout in other countries where cohesion among different ethnic populations is needed to ensure stability. In contrast, salad bowl has become a modern day concept that allows retention of cultural diversity in the society thereby creating more avenues of influencing the social economic dynamics.Advertising Looking for research paper on ethnicity studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Theories of racial relations Theories of racial relations have continually served to shed light on the different perspectives of the melting pot and salad bowl. In fact, they offer a systematic approach that enhances the understanding of the holistic study of races in relation to the social environment particularly with regard to concerns over discrimination and conflicts. Assimilation theories have been widely utilized to expound on the concepts behind the melting pot in interracial relations. Park (1930, p. 183) asserted in his theory that the immigrants make an initial contact with the larger society, similarly to introduction to the large pot. Close interaction occurs during the first few months and years before a competitive phase ensues whereby the ethnic populations are often faced with dwindling resources and opportunities resulting in stiff competition. Scarcity of employment opportunities and social amenities brings about discontent between the two competing sides to an ex tent where ethnic conflict occur (Kivisto, 2004, p. 76). In addition, the immigrants are entirely blamed for the social problems by the larger society thus providing more time for interaction whereby learning of each other ways take place (Aguirre Jr. Turner, 2008). In comparison to the components of the melting pot, the immigrants together with their descendants surrender and start learning the norms of their new environment thereby improving their relations with their other races. Incorporation in joint ventures is achieved when close interaction occurs at workplaces and social activities resulting into sharing of cultural values. In tandem with the melting pot concept, the merger of the two cultural entities led to the invention of a distinct cultural identity (LeMay, 2008). It is worth noting that the assimilation process is effective only when conducive predisposing factors that promote interaction of the various ethnic populations. However, the assumption that assimilation is a relentless process while failing to explain the impact of the discriminatory forces makes the theory’s premise weak (Yitzhaki Schechtman, 2009, p. 148). The embracement of salad bowl in mid 20th century provided a good basis on which the population dynamics could be explained. The salad bowl concepts shares similarities with the pluralism theories due to their assertion of retention of distinct identities in advent of social pressures to homogenize. The pluralism theory champions the preservation of cultural and organizational structures while maintaining the behavioral characteristics as a form of curtailing discriminatory efforts towards a certain group. In tandem with the contents of the salad bowl, pluralism theory is concerned with the perpetuation of the ethnic identities hence creating a pluralistic society that is unique due to its mosaic nature (LeMay, 2008). Pluralism theory realizes the inevitability of change thereby creating avenues of minimal adjustments in the cultural values with the sole aim of shielding the small populations from discrimination. While minimal deviation from the norms is advised, the theory asserts that retention of elements that denote the ethnic heritage should always precedence at all times. More importantly, the theory supports the view that heterogeneity and diversity offers better prospects in terms of development of cultural values (Spiro, 1955, p. 1234). Despite serving to complement the salad bowel, pluralism theory is criticized for failing to take into consideration the broader social forces that perpetuate discrimination; its explanation is premised on ethno genesis. Strengths and limitations The melting pot set the foundation of the formation of an American culture that has unified the people irrespective of the differing demographic variables. The cultural assimilation concept involving all the ethnic identities ensures the resulting cultural dispensation receives wide acceptance from the masses (Yitzh aki Schechtman, 2009, p. 143). However, the concept fails to take into account the implications of the disparities between the various ethnic populations in terms of economic power and numbers. Although cultural assimilation occurs, a high tendency of segregation and homogeneity has been observed based on ethnic origin. It is not uncommon to find distinct neighborhoods habited by a certain ethnic population, and such examples are evident in majority of the cities. In addition, the skewed distribution of new immigrants in terms of settlement denotes impediments to the overall integration of the American society at social, cultural and economic levels while taking into account the existence of ethnic poverty and dispersion (Yitzhaki Schechtman, 2009, p. 143). Empowerment of the minority groups is acknowledged by the salad bowl where they are provided with an opportunity to preserve their identities as a way of cushioning themselves from discrimination. More importantly, improved liv ing and relations within and without the cultural ethnic enclave is efficient owing to the mutual respect developed amongst the populations. However, the tendency of manipulating the supportive environment through legislative or social changes aimed at disadvantaging a certain group is rife. Loss of diversity and eventual demise of variety through exposing the minority groups would exacerbate the situation thereby rendering them vulnerable to massive challenges in the society (White, 1989, p. 89). Conclusion Taking into the variations in the ethnic populations of the immigrants, the eventual integration in the American way of life has become a difficult task. While opposing views exist between the two concepts, their success in improving interracial relations has proved a success story. However, the holistic and unpredictable nature of the American socio, economic and political environment has eroded some achievements leading to fragmentation of the society at the local level. Moreo ver, manipulation of the balancing mechanisms would water down the fruits of salad bowl and melting pot. It is therefore imperative for the American people to remain vigilant in ensuring the premises behind the two models are retained thus ensuring peaceful coexistence and improved interracial relations. Reference List Aguirre Jr., A. Turner, J. (2008). American Ethnicity: The Dynamics and Consequences of Discrimination. New Jersey: McGraw. Banton, M. (1998). Racial Theories. Cambridge: Cambridge university press. Henderson, S. (2009). Aspects of American History. New York: Prentice Hall. Kivisto, P. (2004). What Is The Canonical Theory Of Assimilation? Robert E. Park and His Predecessors. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 40(2), 149–163. LeMay, M. (2008).The Perennial Struggle: race, ethnicity, and minority group relations in the United States. New Jersey: McGraw. Park, R. E. (1930). Assimilation, social. In E. R. A. Seligman A. Johnson (Eds.), Encyclopedi a of the social sciences (pp. 281–283). New York: Macmillan Company. Rosaldo, R. (1994). Cultural Citizenship and Educational Democracy. Cultural Anthropology, 9(3), 402-411. Spiro, M. (1955). The Acculturation of American Ethnic Groups. American Anthropologist, 57(6), 1240-1252. White, S. (1989). A Question of Style: Blacks in and around New York City in the Late 18th Century. The Journal of American Folklore, 102(403), 23-44. Yitzhaki, S. Schechtman, E. (2009). The â€Å"Melting Pot†: A Success Story? Journal of Economic Inequality, 7(2), 137-151.

Friedman and Hayek's neo-liberal political economy Research Paper

Friedman and Hayek's neo-liberal political economy - Research Paper Example If the delivery of mail is a technical monopoly, no one else will be able to succeed in competition with the government. If it is not, there is no reason why the government should be engaged in it. The only way to find out is to leave other people free to enter. (Friedman 1982, p. 29) He therefore disapproves of the idea of the government monopolizing many fields where the private sectors would be able to participate in. Where there is an involvement by the government, because it is necessary, then it should be a legal monopoly, whereby the private sector is prohibited by the law to participate. Hayek Friedrich von Hayek and The neo-liberal political theory Hayek, while continuing with Adam Smith’s liberal traditions, comes to define the concept of minimal state. The most vital contributions include the radical opposition to social justice system which in his opinion disguises the defending of the middle class’ corporate interest. It promotes the complete removal of eco nomic and public social intervention. The idea of the minimal state was just a means of breaking away from middle class’ power which was known to be controlling the democratic processes with an intention of using the public treasury to redistribute wealth. Hayek’s views on neo-political economy as presented in the constitution of liberty (Hayek 1960) and advocates for elimination of ruling, privatization, elimination of housing, fighting of unemployment through the limitation of the number of programs, , reduction of the total social security expenditures, subsidies and rent control and lastly to remove the power of the trade unions. Redistribution cannot be ensured by the state to serve social justice system. Its function is to provide the legal means that... This paper illustrates both Hayek and Milton Friedman defend neo-liberal economy on grounds that it is rational and an inherently free way that people may relate to one another, by removing undue obstacles that the state often imposes on the exchange of goods and services. Neoliberal political economic theory therefore goes beyond identification of the market as a mere place for production of goods and services but as a place that is tangential top the interaction of people. This conception of market economy issues being closely intertwined with socio-moral issues and social relations have equally been raised by the classical liberal theorist. Robins, for instance, stresses the value of inherent morality that underlies ensuring free exchange in the market. He asserts that the ultimate value of liberal political economy is liberty, and not just the market or private ownership. Liberty is very important to the society, in order that every member of the society may be in a position to o ptimize his or her social contribution. When the government gets too much into controlling the private individuals, their optimal contributions will be greatly minimized by the systematic obstacles that the state put in place, such as limitation as to quotas, quantity of exports, price fixing and so on. Such erosion of liberty in the manner an individual deals with one’s products in the market would be a great disincentive to the spirit of enthusiasm, which sustains production.